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The Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest
in the world, goes back at least 5,000 years. Aryan tribes from the
northwest invaded about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the earlier
inhabitants created the classical Indian culture. Arab incursions starting
in the 8th century and Turkish in 12th were followed by European traders
beginning in the late 15th century. By the 19th century, Britain had
assumed political control of virtually all Indian lands. Nonviolent
resistance to British colonialism under Mohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal
NEHRU led to independence in 1947. The subcontinent was divided into the
secular state of India and the smaller Muslim state of Pakistan. A third
war between the two countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becoming
the separate nation of Bangladesh. Fundamental concerns in India include
the ongoing dispute with Pakistan over Kashmir, massive overpopulation,
environmental degradation, extensive poverty, and ethnic and religious
strife, all this despite impressive gains in economic investment and
output.
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